MGT402 Short Notes Lectures 23 ~ 45

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MGT402 Short Notes Lectures 23 ~ 45

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Lec # 23

PROCESS COSTING SYSTEM

(Opening balance of work in process)

 

Two methods of cost allocation

 

(1)     The weighted average (or averaging) method

(2)     The FIFO method. 

Weighted average method

In the weighted average method opening stock values are added to current costs 

FIFO method

• It is more complicated to operate

• In process costing, it seems unrealistic to relate costs for the previous period to the current Period of activities 

Choosing the valuation method in examinations

In order to use the weighted average or FIFO methods to account for opening work-in-process different information is needed, as follows:

For weighted average   An analysis of the opening work-in-process value

Into cost elements (i.e. materials, labor)

For FIFO    The degree of completion of the opening work in process for each cost element.

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     Lec # 25

    COSTING/VALUATION OF JOINT AND BY PRODUCTS

 

Basis of Cost Allocation  (For by products)

 

(1)             Physical Quantity Ratio

(2)            Selling Price Ratio

    (3)     Hypothetical Market Value Ratio                                   

Classification of by product

By product can be classified into two categories:

 

 

1.      Requiting no further process

 

2.      Requiting further processing

 

 

 

 

 

Accounting for By Products

 

 

(1)            Income Approach

(2)            Costing Approach

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Lec#27

 

MARGINAL AND ABSORPTION COSTING

(Product costing systems)

 

 

 

                                         Cost Elements

 

   

Direct Material, Direct Material                     Factory Overhead Cost

           (Variable Cost)                                  (Variable & Fixed Cost)

 

 

Marginal Costing

 

 

The cost of a cost unit is presented as the total of direct materials, direct labor, direct expenses and variable overheads (but not fixed overheads)

 

 

Marginal cost is the cost the variable cost that changes with the production of each next unit. 

 

 

(A key concept in marginal costing is that of contribution margin)

 

                                                                                                      Absorption and marginal costing

 

 

 

In absorption costing, fixed manufacturing overheads are absorbed into cost units. Thus stock is valued at absorption cost and fixed manufacturing overheads are charged in the profit and loss account of the period in which the units are sold.

 

 

In marginal costing, fixed manufacturing overheads are not absorbed into cost units, Stock is valued at marginal (or variable) cost and fixed manufacturing overheads are treated as period costs and are charged in the profit and loss account of the period in which the overheads are incurred.

 

(Under absorption costing stock will include variable and fixed overheads whereas under marginal costing stock will only include variable overheads.)

 

 

 

Contribution Margin

 

Contribution margin = Sales - variable costs of sales

 

 

Contribution margin is short for “contribution to fixed costs and profits

 

  

Marginal costing: Profit calculation

 

 

Sales                                                        Rs X

 Less: variable costs                                      (X)

                                                               ------------

Contribution margin                                      X

  Less: fixed costs                                          (X)

                                                              ---------------

Profit                                                             X 

  

In short contribution margin less fixed cost is called profit

 

Absorption costing: profit calculation

 

In absorption costing this is effectively calculated in one stage as the cost of sales already includes fixed costs

 

 

Sales                                                   X

 

Less: absorption cost                         (X)

                                                     ------------   

 Profit                                              X    

 

  

Marginal or absorption costing can be useful for internal management reporting       

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  Lec# 28

 

 

If stock levels are rising from opening to closing balance

 

 

       Absorption Costing profit > Margin Costing profit

 

            (More profit)                           (Less profit)

 

                                                            

If stock levels are falling from opening to closing balance

 

 

                  Absorption Costing profit < Margin Costing profit

 

                         (Less profit)                       (More profit)

 

 

(Fixed costs carried forward are charged in this period, under absorption costing)

 

 

 

If stock levels are the same

 

 

Absorption Costing profit = Margin Costing profit                             

 

 

           (same profit)                   (Same profit)

  

Reconciliation formula to learn                                  Rs.

                                              

Profit as per absorption costing system                                            xxx

Add Opening stock @ fixed FOH rate at opening date                   xxx

Less Closing stock @ fixed FOH rate at closing date                      xxx

                                                                                                      -------

Profit as per marginal costing system                                              xxx

 

 

 

 

 

 

(The only difference between using absorption costing and marginal costing as the basis of stock valuation is the treatment of fixed production costs.)

 

Arguments against absorption costing

 

In absorption costing the fixed costs do not change as a result of a change in the level of activity. Therefore such costs cannot be related to production and should not be included in the stock valuation

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 Lec# 29

 

 

 

COST – VOLUME – PROFIT ANALYSIS

 

(Contribution Margin Approach)

 

 

     CVP   stands for        COST – VOLUME – PROFIT

 

 

 

CVP analysis may also be used to predict profit levels at different volumes of activity based upon the assumption that costs and revenues exhibit a linear relationship with the level of activity.

Cost-volume-profit analysis determines how costs and profit react to a change in the volume or level of activity, so that management can decide the 'best' activity level. 

 

Following are the assumptions which are used in CVP analysis.

 

 

 

1. Variable costs and selling price (and hence contribution) per unit are assumed to be unaffected by a change in activity level.

 

 

 

2. Fixed costs, whilst not affected in total by a change in the activity level, will change per unit as the activity level changes and there are more (or less) units over which to "share out" the fixed costs if fixed costs per unit change with the activity level, then profit per unit must also change.

 

CVP is a relationship of four variables

 

Sales                  -----------à           Volume

Variable cost     ------------à             Cost

Fixed cost         ------------à             Cost

Net income       ------------à           Profit

 

 

 

 

Two approaches of CVP analysis

 

 

(1)             Contribution margin approach

(2)            Break even analysis approach

 

 

 

Contribution Margin Approach & CVP Analysis

 

 

Contribution margin contributes to meet the fixed cost. Once the fixed cost has been met the incremental contribution margin is the profit

                                                                                              

 

 

(Income Statement as per the marginal costing system is used as a Standard format of Income Statement to analyze the Cost-Volume-Profit relationship.)

  

 

Sales                                                      xxx

 

Variable Cost                                        (xxx)

                                                           ----------

Contribution Margin                              xxx

Fixed Cost                                            (xxx)

                                                          ----------

Profit                                                     xxx

 

  

 

 

(1)   Physically increase in volume causes an increase in contribution margin and if there is not increase in the fixed cost because of such change, the incremental contribution margin is added in the final profits

 

  

(2)  Increase in sales price per unit causes an increase in the contribution margin, as there is not change in the volume the fixed will remain unchanged. So the incremental change is contribution margin is included into the profit.

 

  

 

(3)  Decrease in sales price per unit causes a decrease in the contribution margin, as there is not change in the volume the fixed will remain unchanged. So the change in contribution margin is subtracted from the profits, which result into a loss

 

 

 

(Normally a decrease in sales price should case an increase in the sales volume).

 

 

(4)  Decrease in sales price per unit causes a decrease in the contribution margin, as well as an increase in volume is causing an increase in the profit, this results in an increase in profit

 

 

 

1. At zero contribution margin the loss will be equal to the fixed cost

 

 

2. Increase in variable cost reduces the contribution margin

 

3. Sales – Variable cost = Contribution margin

 

4. Contribution margin + Variable cost = Sales

 

5. Contribution margin – Fixed cost = Profit

 

6. Profit + Fixed cost = Contribution margin

 

7. Sales - Variable cost = Fixed cost + Profit

 

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Lec#30

COST – VOLUME – PROFIT ANALYSIS

(Break-even Approach)

 

 

Break-even

 

Break-even is the point where sales revenue equals total cost.

 

 

In case neither a profit nor a loss

 

 

 

Profit (or loss) is the difference between contribution margin and fixed costs.

 

 

 

Thus the break-even point occurs where contribution margin equals fixed costs

 

Contribution Margin per unit

 

 

Selling price per unit less variable costs per unit

 

 

Total contribution

 

 

Volume x (Selling price per unit less variable costs per unit)

 

 

Target Contribution Margin

 

 

                            Fixed costs + Profit target

 

 

Target Sales in number of units

 

 

                            Target Contribution Margin

 

                      ________________________

                               Unit contribution

 

 

 

Contribution margin to sales ratio

 

                                                                       

 

 

 

Contribution to sales ratio(C/S ratio) =Contribution Margin in Rs / Sales in Rs

 

 

Break even sales in Rupees

 

                               % of required amount

Given Amount x    _________________         = Required Amount      

                                % of given amount

 

 

 

                                                             Target CM    (fixed cost + target profit)

 

Break even sales in Rupees =    _______________________                                                     

                                                      Contribution to sales ratio ( CM in Rs / Sale in Rs.)            

 

 

Example

If the target contribution margin is equal to Rs. 1,000 then what would be the sales at this point?

Now the above formula will be applied to calculate breakeven sales:

Target CM is the given amount and its % is 25, so the sale which is 100% will be:

 

                    100

    Rs 1,000 x      -----            = Rs 4,000   break even sale in Rs.

 

 

                           25

 

OR

 

 

Rs   1,000

 

     -------- = Rs. 4,000   break even sale in Rs

         25

 

 So,

 

                                                                        Fixed cost

Break even Sales in Rs. =     -------------

                                                   C/S ratio

 

 

 

Break even sales in units

 

Simple formula

 

 

Break even sales in Rupees

------------------------------------= number of units

Sales price per unit

  

 

Direct formula

                                   Target CM   (Fixed costs + Profit target)

                                 -------------------

                                  CM per unit (Selling price per unit less variable costs per unit)

 

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Lec# 31

 

BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS – MARGIN OF SAFETY

 

 

Margin of Safety (MOS)

 

The margin of safety is the difference between budgeted sales volume and break-even sales volume; it indicates the vulnerability of a business to a fall in demand.

 

 

          Margin of safety=Budgeted sales – Break-even sales

 

 

 

 

MOS (margin of safety) ratio

                                                               MOS (Margin of safety=Budgeted sales)

MOS (margin of safety) ratio =     __________________    x 100                                                                                                          

                           Budgeted Sales 

OR                                                             

 

 

                                                                     Budgeted profit

 

Margin of safety ratio         =        ________________________   x 100

                                                            Budgeted contribution margin

 

OR

 

MOS Ratio                  profit  /  contribution margin

Different ways of calculation of margin of safety

                                                                                              

(1) Based on Budgeted sales

                                Budgeted sales – Break-even sales

 

  

(2)  Using Budget profit

 

                                               Budgeted profit

                                      _______ _______________   x 100

                                      Budgeted contribution margin

 

(3) Using profit and contribution ratio

                                       Profit to sales ratio

                                    ____________________   x 100 

                                      Contribution to sales

 

 

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Lec#32

BREAKEVEN ANALYSIS – CHARTS AND GRAPHS

 

 

 

 

The chart or graph is constructed as follows:

 

 

 

• Plot fixed costs, as a straight line parallel to the horizontal axis

 

 

 

• Plot sales revenue and variable costs from the origin

 

 

 

• Total costs represent fixed plus variable costs.

 

(1)  The point at which the sales revenue and total cost lines intersect indicates the breakeven level of output.

 

 

(2) By multiplying the sales volume by the unit price at the break-even point the level of revenue needed to break even can be determined.

 

 

 

(3) The chart is normally drawn up to the budgeted sales volume.

 

(4) The difference between the budgeted sales volume and break-even sales volume is referred to as the margin of safety.

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Lec#33

 

WHAT IS A BUDGET?

 

 

Budget

 

 

A budget is a plan expressed in quantitative, usually monetary terms, covering a specific period of time, usually one year.

 

  

Two basic classes of budget

 

 

(1)            Cash budget

(2)            Operating budget

 

 

 

Cash budget

Capital budgets are directed towards proposed expenditures for new projects

And often require special financing.

 

Operating budget

 

 

The operating budgets are directed towards achieving short-term operational goals of the organization, for instance, production or profit goals in a business firm. Operating budgets may be sub-divided into various departmental or functional budgets.

 

 

Characteristics of a budget

 

It is prepared in advance and is derived from the long, term strategy of the organization.

It relates to future period for which objectives or goals have already been laid down.

It is expressed in quantitative form, physical or monetary units, or both.

 

Different types of budgets                                                     

(1)             Sales. Budget

(2)            Production Budget

(3)            Administrative Expense Budget

(4)            Raw material Budget, etc

 

 

All these sectional budgets are afterwards integrated into a master budget- which represents an overall plan of the organization

  

A budget helps in following ways

 

1.         It brings about efficiency and improvement in the working of the organization.

 

 

2.         way of communicating the plans to various units of the organization. By establishing the divisional, departmental, sectional budgets, exact responsibilities are assigned. It thus minimizes the possibilities of buck-passing if the budget figures are not met.

 

 

3.          Way or motivating managers to achieve the goals set for the units.

 

 

 

4.           It serves as a benchmark for controlling on going. Operations.

 

 

 

5.            It helps in developing a team spirit where participation in budgeting is encouraged.

 

 

 

6.           It helps in reducing wastage's and losses by revealing them in time for corrective action.

 

 

 

7.          It serves as a basis for evaluating the performance of managers.

 

 

 

8.                        It serves as a means of educating the managers.

 

  

 

 Budgetary control                                               

                 The exercise of control in the organization with the help of budgets is known as budgetary control.

 

Process of budgetary control

(i)                preparation of various budgets

(ii)              (ii) continuous comparison of actual performance with budgetary

Performance

(iii)            Revision of budgets in the light of changed circumstances.

 

 

 

Budget controller

 

The Chief Executive is finally responsible for the budget programmed, it is better if a large part of the supervisory responsibility is delegated to an official designated as Budget Controller or Budget Director.

  

 

Fixation of the Budget Period

 

 

Budget period' means the period for which a budget is prepared and employed. The budget period depends upon the nature of the business and the control techniques.

 

 

Forecast

A forecast is an estimate of the future financial conditions or operating results.

 

 

                   A forecast may be prepared in financial or physical terms for sales, production cost, or other resources required for business. Instead of just one forecast a number of alternative forecasts may be considered with a view to obtaining the most realistic overall plan.

 

Preparing budgets

 

 

After the forecasts have been finalized the preparation of budgets follows. The budget activity starts with the preparation of the said budget.

 

 

Production budget: on the basis of sales budget and the production capacity available

 

 

 

Financial budget (i.e. cash or working capital budget):                     will be prepared on the basis of sale forecast and production budget.

 

 

 

(All these budgets are combined and coordinated into -a master budget)

 

 

 

Fixed and Flexible Budgets

A fixed budget is based on a fixed volume of activity, 11 may

lose its effectiveness in planning and controlling if the actual capacity utilization is different from what was planned for any particular unit of time e.g. a month or a quarter.

 

 

The flexible budget is more useful for changing levels of activity, as it considers fixed and variable costs separately. Fixed costs, as you are aware, remain unchanged over a certain range of output such costs change when

 

There is a change in capacity level. The variable costs change in direct proportion to output.

 

 

(If flexible budgeting approach is adopted, the budget controller can analyze the variance between actual costs and budgeted costs depending upon the actual level of activity attained during a period of time.)

 

 

 

Objective of Budget

 

 

(1)          Profit maximization

(2)          Maximization of sales

(3)          Volume growth

(4)          To compete with the competitors

(5)          Development of new areas of operation.

(6)          Quality of service

(7)          Work-force efficiency.

 

 

Division of Budgets

 

 

(1)          Functional Budget

 

(2)          Master Budget

 

 

                            Functional budget

                                                 !

                                          Sale budget

                                                 !

                                    Production budget

                                                 !

                                                 !

        ____________________ !___________________

        !                                        !                                      !

        !                                        !                                     !

   Raw material                         Labor                    Factory overhead

            !                                               !                                           !

         !                                               !                                            !

         !_______________________ ! ______________________!

   

 

 

Cost of goods sold

 

!

!

      ____________________-!_______________________

      !                                        !                                              !

      !                                        !                                              !

Selling                                       general &                                     financial

Distribution                                administrative                                charges

Expenses                                expenses budget                              budget

Budget

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Lec#34                                            

 

PRODUCTION & SALES BUDGET

 

Budgets can be classified into different categories on the basis of Time, Function, or Flexibility.

 

 

 

 

 

Rolling budget

 

 

Budget for a year in advance will always be there. Immediately after a month, or a quarter, passes, as-the case may be, a new budget is prepared for a twelve months. The figures for the month/quarter, which has rolled down, are dropped and the figures for the next month /quarter are added.

 

 

 Example,

 

If a budget has been prepared for the year 19X7, after the expiry of the first quarter ending 31st March 19X7, a new budget forth full year ending 31ft March, 19X8 will be prepared by dropping the figures for the quarter which has past (i.e. quarter ending 31^st March 19X7) and adding-the figures for the new quarter-ending 31st March 19X8.

 

 

 

 

 

Sales budget

 

Sales Budget generally forms the fundamental basis on which all other budgets are built the budget is based on projected sales to be achieved in a budget period. The Sales Manager is directly responsible for the preparation and execution of this budget.

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Lec#35

PRODUCTION & SALES BUDGET (Contd.)

 

 

Production budget

This budget provides an estimate of the total volume of production distributed product-wise with the scheduling of operations by days, weeks and months and a forecast of the inventory of finished products.

Generally, the production budget is based on the sales -budget.

 

 

The production budget is prepared after taking into consideration several factors like:

 

(i)               Inventory policies.

(ii)             Sales requirements

(iii)          Production stability

(iv)          Plant capacity

(v)             Availability of materials and labor

(vi)          Time taken in production process, etc.

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Lec#36

 

FLEXIBLE BUDGET (not completed)

 

 

The preparation of a flexible budget results from the development of formulas for each department and for each account within a department or cost center. The formula for each account indicates the fixed amount and/or a variable rate. The fixed amount and variable rate remain constant within prescribed ranges of activity. The variable portion of the formula is a rate expressed in relation to a base such as direct labor hours, direct labor cost or machine hours.

 

Capacity and volume

 

 

The terms "capacity" and "volume" (or activity) are used in connection with the construction and use of both fixed and flexible budgets.

 

 

Capacity is that fixed amount

 

Volume is the variable factor in business.

                                         

 

 

Theoretical Capacity

 

The theoretical capacity of a department is its capacity to produce at full speed without interruptions

 

Expected Actual Capacity

 

 

Expected actual capacity is based on a short-range outlook. The use of expected actual capacity is feasible with firms whose products are of a seasonal nature» and market and style changes allow price adjustments according to competitive conditions and customer demands.

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Lec#37

 

FLEXIBLE BUDGET (Contd.)

 

 

 

Analysis of Cost Behavior

The success of a flexible budget depends upon careful study and analysis of the relationship of expenses to volume of activity or production and results in classifying expenses as fixed, variable, and semi variable,

 

 

Fixed Expenses

 

A fixed expense remains the same in total as activity increases or decreases.

 

 

In the short run, some fixed expenses, some times called programmed fixed expenses, will change because of changes in the volume of activity or for such reasons as changes in the number and salaries of the management groups.

 

 

 

Variable Expenses

 

A variable expense is expected to increase proportionately with an increase in activity and decrease proportionately with a decrease in activity.

 

 

 

Variable expenses include the cost of supplies, indirect factory labor, receiving, storing, rework, perishable tools, and maintenance of machinery and tools. A measure of activity – such as direct labor hour or dollars.